Throughout history construction materials and techniques have evolved greatly. These innovations are often driven by changes in services requirements within buildings (offices etc) rather than structural needs.
The major breakthrough came in the eighteenth century with iron (both cast and wrought) overcoming stone in building construction. This resulted in the impressive Gothic cathedrals and other large church structures.
Stone
During the Stone Age, hunter-gatherers used animal skins and primitive huts made of wooden poles to shelter themselves. Later, they developed tholoi – round structures built of dry-laid stones, a predecessor to masonry construction. This type of construction has the advantage of shedding snow and rain and reducing sunlight penetration, which allows for more comfortable living. However, it was still prone to leaking.
The Egyptians began to use cut stone for building as it was durable and a symbol of the sun god Ra, their pharaoh’s patron deity. As such, it was favored in the royal mortuary buildings that housed the pharaoh’s remains and were designed to offer eternal protection to his ka, or vital force. It was also the ideal material for constructing pharaonic temples and tombs.
Stone is much stronger in compression than wood, so it works well for columns. But lintels spanning between them cannot develop the same high compressive forces as timber ones; they are therefore limited to short spans, perhaps 5 metres (16 feet). This limits the height of stone buildings.
One development that addressed this limitation was the corbel dome. It appeared in crude forms in Mesopotamian tombs and the tholoi of Neolithic Europe, but was perfected in the Mycenaean tombs of the 14th century bce. This type of construction uses a series of radial segments to construct a vaulted ceiling that exploits the higher compressive strengths of stone.
Brick
Bricks are one of the most recognizable building materials in history. They can be used for incredible intricacy and beauty when arranged in detailed patterns, or they can be used to create clean and simple walls. Bricks have been around for thousands of years, and they became widely available in the 1800’s with the industrial revolution in Britain.
The basic ingredients for bricks are clay and sand or shale. They are kiln-fired for strength and durability. Clay can be found in river sediment, lake bottoms, and even in Ice Age glaciers. It is very durable, and it can take fire without cracking or crumbling. Clay can be colored red, yellow, or white based on the consistency of the sand or shale it is mixed with.
Historically, brick production was an extremely manual process. Often the raw material was sifted by hand or with livestock, and it was very expensive to move this heavy material. Bricks also require a lot of fuel to burn in the kiln, and cordwood was the standard into the late nineteenth century, even as area forests were disappearing.
Traditionally, bricks were hand-made and laid by bricklayers who were part of guilds, or masonry societies. This work was very labor intensive, and it took a long time for the kilns to produce a usable brick. Bricks arrived in the United States a little bit later than in Europe and Asia, and they were used for building purposes starting in the 1600’s.
Wood
Wood is one of the oldest building materials. It is an organic substance that is derived from a living tree, and it has a fibrous, heterogeneous, and anisotropic texture. Humans have used it to provide shelter and protection since prehistoric times.
Depending on the region and available resources, different construction methods were developed for using wood. The most common are timber framing, post-and-beam construction, and half-timbered construction. The latter involves using heavy, load-bearing timbers that are left exposed on the exterior.
In addition to providing a solid framework for buildings, wood can also be used as a material for windows and doors. It can also be painted, stained, or treated with chemicals to improve its durability and appearance. It is a natural composite of cellulose fibers, which are strong in tension, and embedded in a matrix of lignin, which resists compression.
Besides being used as a construction material, wood is also utilized for fuel. This is mostly done in rural areas around the world, and it is commonly used to heat homes and businesses. Moreover, wood is used for furniture. It is also a popular choice for fireplaces and wood stoves, as it adds warmth and ambiance to a home or office. Additionally, it is a great material to use for papermaking. However, the growing demand for wood has led to deforestation, and it is becoming a scarce resource. As a result, scientists are working on new procedures to extract various components from wood.
Concrete
Concrete is a versatile building material with an impressive history. It dates back to 6500 BCE when the Nabateans of what is now Syria and Jordan used a precursor to modern concrete to create floors, housing structures and underground cisterns.
It would be another century before the modern form of concrete was developed, with the invention of reinforced concrete bringing about major advancements. Reinforced concrete is made stronger by adding steel or other metals to the mix and thereby giving it a higher tensile strength. This allows builders to create more complex and ambitious buildings, such as skyscrapers and other large scale projects.
The first concrete street was created in Ohio over 100 years ago, and the Panama Canal was built with concrete in 1904. Concrete has become a staple in the construction of commercial and high-rise residential projects.
In the world of building materials, innovation appears to happen in bursts and not at a constant rate. It seems that the development of new building materials correlates with the needs of civilizations; for example, as the Romans were developing their empire they were looking to make grand statements through their temples and other significant structures. The same seems to be true today; as the world’s fastest growing economies develop, they need new buildings that can accommodate their businesses and people.