Construction is a key activity, and the choice of building materials plays an important role in the design. This article will review the evolution of different types of materials and methods of construction through history.
Stone was an early contender as a building material, demonstrated by the edifices of Stonehenge and the Pyramids. Later it gained popularity in the Roman Empire.
Stone
Stone is one of the oldest building materials that has been used for a very long time. Stones are created over millions of years as a result of rock erosion, continental drift and volcanic eruptions. They are made of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. The durability of stones is determined by their composition, physical properties and the environment in which they are found.
The ancient builders were creative, choosing different materials according to their needs. The first structures were built with mud bricks, but as civilizations evolved they started to use more durable materials. Stones offered the strength and durability needed for a growing population.
Some of the most significant developments in the history of stone were made by European scholars. The scholarly approach to stones was improved by the German geologist Julius Hirschwald (1845-1928) when he published a comprehensive method for testing and rating rocks for their resistance against atmospheric phenomena in 1893 [202].
Another significant development was made by the English builder Joseph Aspdin (1778-1855) with his invention of Portland cement in the second half of the 19th century. The use of this product revolutionised the construction industry and allowed for the development of large scale buildings in masonry. A new method for evaluating building materials also emerged when the American geologist Daniel W. Kessler started to study building stones for the National Bureau of Standards in 1912 and later published many scientific articles on this subject in 1919 [214]. Building stone was also widely used for construction purposes: the bluish limestone from Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia and Pennsylvania supplied the most buildings in the United States; brownstone from Portland, Connecticut and nearby localities supplied New York City and the state of New Jersey; and gray granite from Vermont and South Wales was popular in Canada and the United Kingdom.
Wood
Throughout human history, wood has been a versatile and adaptable building material. It has been used as a fuel, construction material, and as raw materials for paper, tools, weapons, and furniture. Wood has even been the inspiration for many pieces of art and has served as a medium for learning.
Early civilizations relied on the availability of local resources and their creativity. They built with stone and mud bricks, but they also utilized wood and thatch. The latter is particularly interesting, as it showcases the early builders’ ingenuity and resourcefulness.
One of the most important discoveries of early humans was fire, which brought warmth and protection from predators. It also opened up a new way to consume food, cooking it rather than eating it raw. This allowed early hominins to settle in colder climates and form more complex social structures. It was the emergence of these and other innovations that accelerated the evolution of mankind.
Wood was a major part of these developments and remains an essential material today. While it is no longer the main material for large buildings and long-span bridges, it is still a popular choice for houses and smaller structures. It is also an important source of decorative purposes and furniture. It can be dated by carbon dating, or in some species by dendrochronology, to determine when an object was made.
Concrete
Concrete is one of the most important man-made building materials. In its modern form, it is used for everything from bridges to high-rise buildings. It has the ability to withstand huge amounts of pressure and can be formed into complex shapes, making it ideal for modern structures that need to be both functional and attractive.
The oldest known concrete was found in the floor of a hut from around 7000BC and is thought to have been made by burning limestone to produce quicklime and mixing it with stone. The technique was later refined by the Egyptians and Greeks who also used it for building purposes. The Romans further improved the process by adding volcanic ash, known as pozzolana, to their mortar mix. This triggered a chemical reaction that allowed the mixture to set underwater, something previous building materials couldn’t do.
Although the concrete the Romans used was not the same as that of today, it served as a solid foundation for many of their most significant buildings. These include the Pantheon and the Colosseum, some of which still stand to this day. They were usually covered with brick masonry to improve the aesthetics of the structure and make it fire-resistant, a key requirement after the devastating fire of 64 AD that destroyed 10 of Rome’s districts.
The Industrial Revolution saw concrete begin to rise in popularity. In 1793, engineer John Smeaton rediscovered the use of hydraulic lime and created what is now known as concrete. Joseph Aspdin invented Portland cement in 1824 by heating chalk and clay until it produced a substance similar to Portland stone when it hardened, thus giving it its name. Aspdin’s discovery enabled concrete to be used in a variety of applications, including the construction of iconic buildings like the Ingalls Building in Cincinnati.
Cast Iron
As early civilizations grew, the need for stronger and better building materials was met with newer developments in construction. Early structures showcased the creativity of builders, with mud bricks and stone offering strength and durability. As the population grew and the need for larger buildings rose, the development of iron and other metals offered more flexibility to architects.
The first cast iron artifacts are known from China in the 5th century bc, but it took much longer for it to reach Europe where it became an important material by the 14th century. The discovery that slow cooling speeds yielded ductility improved the casting process and helped produce better engineering materials.
Initially, the casting of metals was done by pouring molten materials into molds made from sand. Later, crucibles were used for melting metals, which gave way to blast furnaces. These progressively increased in height as the need for higher melting temperatures was realized.
The invention of nodular cast iron in the 1940s greatly improved the mechanical properties of cast iron, with ultimate tensile strength reaching 600 MPa and elongation of 3%. Today, high volume foundries use a combination of cupolas and electric induction furnaces for melt processing. Cast iron production has been reduced due to government shutdowns and restrictions caused by the coronavirus pandemic in 2021, but it is expected to rebound with new plant constructions and resumption of normal operations.